Silage quality and weight gain of West African Dwarf goat-bucks fed silage of cassava peel x cowpea haulms

Blessing Emmanuel Adeyele, Oluwatosin Bode Omotoso, Esther Jesunifesimi Adejimi, Adebowale Noah Fajemisin and Julius Adebayo Alokan

Department of Animal Production and Health, School of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. 704, Akure. Ondo State, Nigeria
beadeyele@gmail.com

Abstract

The practice of leaving post-harvest crop residues in open fields wastes ruminant nutritional opportunity and is a significant source of environmental pollution when burnt, contributing to global warming. Hence, a 56-day study was conducted to evaluate the potential of molasses-ensiled cassava peels x cowpea haulms at graded levels. Dried cassava peels and cowpea haulms were collected, sundried, milled into 2 mm diameter size and thoroughly mixed at 100:0, 75:25, 50:50 and 25:75, respectively and ensiled using molasses as a substrate to enhance fermentation for 7 days under anaerobic condition. The silages were denoted as CP¹⁰⁰, CP⁷⁵CH²⁵, CP⁵⁰CH⁵⁰ and CP²⁵CH⁷⁵ and consequently, the diets were fed to sixteen (16) WAD goats (bucks) with an average liveweight of 12.23 ± 0.70 kg, randomly assigned in to four (4) replicates per treatment in a Completely Randomized Design experiment. Parameters assessed included; physicochemical properties of the silages, nutrient intake, nutrient digestibility, feed conversion ratio and average daily weight gain by the animals. The data collected were analyzed. Silages had a light brown-yellowish brown colour or dark brown, a pleasant sweet fermentative smell, moist and a slightly coarse texture. The pH of the silage ranges from 4.02 to 4.65 and declines linearly across the treatments, implication for lactic acid fermentation. The chemical composition revealed significant variations in dry matter (82.1-89.4%), crude protein (8.80-12.3%) and crude fibre (11.6-14.3). It was observed that CP⁷⁵CH²⁵ had the highest CP (12.3%) while CP²⁵CH⁷⁵ had the least CP (10.5%). Furthermore, as CP decreases across the treatment with increase substitution of cowpea haulms as crude fibre increases significantly. Bucks fed silage containing CP⁷⁵CP²⁵ had the highest DMI (508 g/day), CPI (70.8 g/day), TWG (2.43kg), ADWG (43.4 g/day) and the least FCR of 11.7. An indication that the silages are dense in nutrients and positively influence the performance of the goat-bucks. Consequently, molasses-ensiled cassava peel x cowpea haulms at 75:25 proved to be more acceptable and palatable to the animals thus significantly improved their nutrient intake, digestibility and weight gain.

Keywords: molasses, nutrient intake, nutrient digestibility, ruminant, post-harvest crop residue, silage

Introduction

Goat production is a cornerstone of economic resilience, food security and socio-cultural practices across sub-Saharan Africa (Gwiriri et al 2023). The West African Dwarf goat is a keystone breed, renowned for their exceptional adaptation to harsh environments, tolerance to trypanosomiasis and efficient reproduction under low-input management, fattened and mostly slaughtered for meat, particularly the bucks (Tona 2022). Despite these advantages, the sector's productivity remains suboptimal, primarily constrained by perpetual and seasonal deficiencies in the quantity and quality of feed resources. This nutritional bottleneck is most acute during the dry season, leading to severe weight loss, reduced fertility and high kid mortality, thereby undermining the livelihood potential of millions of rural households (Mugoti et al 2025).

The systemic underutilization of post-harvest residues in Nigeria, specifically the annual surplus of approximately 15 million metric tonnes of cassava peels and 4.7 million metric tonnes of cowpea haulms are discarded as “waste” which constitutes a significant environmental and economic loss (Okike et al 2022). Due to inadequate processing infrastructure, these wastes are often subjected to open-air burning, which releases deleterious greenhouse gases such as CO₂ and methane, or left in putrefying heaps that leach toxic cyanogenic glycosides into the soil and groundwater, leading to environmental pollution.

Post-harvest agricultural by-products, such as cassava peels and cowpea haulms, are widely generated in high volumes during harvesting and processing and are often discarded and regarded as ‘waste’, which contributes significantly to environmental pollution due to improper disposal in semi-urban and rural processing environments, causing soil and water pollution. Meanwhile, these residues have nutritional potential that could be harnessed for improved and sustained ruminant production.

Cassava peels are high in dry matter (87–91%) and contain 4–6% crude protein, 60–70% nitrogen-free extract and moderate fiber (12–18%), making them a rich energy source (Unigwe et al 2023). Cowpea haulms offer higher protein content (14–18% CP), moderate fiber (20–25%) and essential minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, making them suitable as a protein supplement in ruminant diets (Ampah 2020).

Transforming these wastes into high-quality silage, fortified with molasses as a fermentable carbohydrate catalyst, provides a robust, humane solution for dry-season feeding for ruminant animals. Ensiling of cassava and cowpea haulms improves the palatability, shelf life and nutritional value of fibrous feed materials and helps balance their respective nutrient profiles, with cassava providing energy and cowpea haulms contributing protein (Abebe and Alemayehu 2022).

When ensiled together, these materials balance energy and protein needs, improving intake and digestibility in goats (Olafadehen and Adebayo 2016).

Silage improves nutritional quality by better conserving energy, true protein and essential vitamins compared to haymaking (Taran 2019). Proper management with microbial inoculants such as molasses enhances fermentation, increasing digestibility and livestock performance (Liu et al 2020). It also decreases feed waste, provides stable forage year-round and effectively supports livestock health, growth and milk production.

Omotoso et al (2023) highlighted the beneficial effect of substituting cassava peels with cowpea haulms in diets, noting improved crude protein intake and weight gain in WAD goats. However, the incorporation of molasses in the ensiling of cassava peels and cowpea haulms may enhance rumen microbial protein synthesis by synchronizing fermentable energy and nitrogen, increasing nitrogen retention and reducing urinary excretion, benefiting animal productivity and environmental sustainability. Most studies focused on single or non-ensiled residues, leaving a knowledge gap on molasses as a fermentation enhancer. Therefore, given the annual availability of millions of tonnes of cassava peels and cowpea haulms across West Africa, developing evidence-based recommendations for their strategic ensiling could transform these environmental menaces into high-quality feed resources, thereby contributing to sustainable ruminant production, improved farmer livelihoods and reduced postharvest environmental pollution. Hence, the crux of this study was to investigate the silage quality and weight gain of WAD goat-bucks fed silage of cassava peel x cowpea haulms.

Materials and methods

This experiment was carried out at the Small Ruminant Unit of the Teaching and Research Farm, while the Laboratory analysis was carried out at the Nutrition Laboratory of the Department of Animal Production and Health, Federal University of Technology, Akure (FUTA). FUTA is located in the humid rainforest zone of Western Nigeria, which is characterized by two rainfall peaks and high humidity during the raining season. The mean annual rainfall is about 1200 – 1500 mm and the rain lasts for nine months, usually from March to November every year. The mean annual relative humidity is over 75% and that of annual temperature is about 27°C with Latitude 7⁰ 15’’N and Longitude 5⁰ 15’’E, Ondo State, Nigeria (Aro et al 2017).

Experimental Diet

Dried cassava peels and cowpea haulms were collected, sundried, milled into 2 mm diameter size and thoroughly mixed at graded levels and ensiled using molasses (20 ml) as a substrate to enhance fermentation for 7 days under anaerobic conditions for 7 days and the silages were prepared into four (4) dietary silages. Thereafter, the silages were then denoted as CP¹⁰⁰, CP⁷⁵CH²⁵, CP⁵⁰CH⁵⁰ and CP²⁵CH ⁷⁵.

Physical analysis of the silages

At the end of the ensiling period (7 days), the silo bucket was opened and samples were collected for immediate physical analyses. The colour, aroma, moistness, texture and humidity were determined according to Babayemi and Igbekoyi (2008), while the pH was measured using a digital pocket pH meter. A hydro-thermometer will be inserted to determine the temperature. The colour assessment was ascertained using visual observations. The aroma of the silage was relatively assessed as Vinegar-like, Sharp-Sweet, fruity, Alcoholic or Pungent (Babayemi and Igbekoyi 2008).

Animal management and experimental design

Sixteen (16) West African Dwarf bucks aged 9-12 months with an average live weight of 12.23 ± 0.70 kg were used for this trial. Before the commencement of the feeding trial, the goats were prophylactically treated against endo- and ecto-parasites and vaccinated against Pestie-Petit de Ruminante (PPR) while all other operations such as feeding and management were carried out in accordance with animal research ethical guidelines as presented by Gross and Tolba (2015).

The buck goats were randomly allotted to the four experimental diets after being balanced for weight, following a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) and four bucks per treatment. The bucks were offered 500g of the allotted diet and fresh potable water daily throughout the fifty-six-day feeding trial.

Growth performance

The goats were weighed weekly (before feeding in the morning) using a hanging scale to monitor weight change. At the end of the feeding trial, initial weights of the goats were deducted from the final weight to determine weight gain throughout the study, while the feed conversion ratio was calculated as feed consumed divided by weight gain.

Laboratory Analysis: Sub-samples of feed, faeces and urine were bulked for chemical analysis. These samples were analyzed for proximate composition, while fibre fraction components were determined using the procedures described by AOAC (2022). Nutrient intake was calculated as percentage nutrient multiply by average feed intake.

Apparent nutrient digestibility trial

In the last week of the experiment, the bucks were transferred and allowed to adjust to the metabolic cage for the first 7 days. Thereafter, data on feed intake and samples of faeces and urine were collected in the morning for 14 days, void faeces were weighed daily and 10% of the samples were oven dried at 105° C for 3 hours for dry matter (DM) determination. The faecal samples from each buck were thoroughly mixed, milled to pass through a 0.2 mm sieve and sealed in polythene bags. The samples were stored at room temperature until required for chemical analysis. The volume of urine excreted from each animal was also collected in a plaque bucket under each cage and a few drops of 25% tetraoxo-sulphate (vi) acid (H₂SO₄) were added daily to prevent volatilization of nitrogen as described by Ahamefule et al (2016). Total volume of urine output per animal was measured and aliquots (10%) of daily output per animal were stored in amber stopper bottles, labelled and stored in a deep freezer until they were required for chemical analysis. The percentage apparent nutrient digestibility coefficient value was evaluated as shown below.

Statistical analysis

Completely randomized design with the following mathematical model: Yij= μ+τi+ εij was used. Where Yij- any of the response variables, - the overall mean; i - effect of the diets, ith treatment (i is the number of treatments CP¹⁰⁰, CP⁷⁵CH²⁵, CP⁵⁰CH⁵⁰ and CP²⁵CH⁷⁵); εij-random error due to experimentation. Data collected from experimental goats and laboratory analysis of the samples were subjected to one-way analysis of variance using the general linear model procedure of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25. Significant differences were compared using Duncan's Multiple Range Test of the same package. The level of significance was taken as p<0.05.

Results and discussion

Table 2 presents the physical properties of silage of cassava peel x cowpea haulms. It was observed that the silages had a light brown-yellowish brown colour or dark brown, a pleasant sweet fermentative smell, moist and a slightly coarse texture across the dietary treatments.

The observed light brown to yellowish-brown color and pleasant/fermented aroma across treatments indicate high-quality lactic acid fermentation. Moderate to slightly coarse textures suggest effective compaction and structural integrity of the plant cell walls during ensiling. Similar findings were reported by Niayale et al (2020), where ensiled cassava peels maintained a characteristic pleasant odor and physical stability over 45 days, facilitating better palatability for Djallonké sheep.

Table 2 presents the physicochemical properties of silage from cassava peels and cowpea haulms. The results of this study showed significant differences (p<0.05) across dietary treatments.

From the result, the humidity levels were significantly different (p<0.015), reflecting high moisture retention essential for anaerobic fermentation. Ayuba (2023) observed that moisture levels exceeding 70% in composite cassava-legume silages support lactic acid bacteria activity, preventing dry matter loss. Furthermore, the recorded temperatures ranged from 27.0–27.2°C and remained within the ambient, stable range, indicating a controlled fermentation process without aerobic spoilage. This aligns with Oyagbohun (2025), who reported temperatures of 20–30°C in high-quality cassava-based silages, noting that such stability preserves the nutritional content of the feed. The pH values (4.02–4.24) fall within the ideal range (3.5-4.6) for stable silage fermentation. The significant difference (p<0.05) in pH suggests that increasing cowpea haulms slightly elevated alkalinity due to their higher protein and mineral content, which acts as a buffer. This trend aligns with Kung and Shaver (2001), who noted that tightly packed cassava silage achieving a pH of 4.30-4-70 effectively inhibited fungal growth and nutrient loss. These results confirm that the cassava peel and cowpea haulm blend undergoes efficient lactic acid fermentation, ensuring a stable and palatable feed resource for ruminants

Table 2 presents the chemical composition of West African Dwarf goat fed silage of cassava peels-cowpea haulms. The results of this study showed significant differences (p < 0.05) across dietary treatments except hemi-cellulose.

It was observed from this study that all values favored silage containing CP⁷⁵CH²⁵. Dry matter (DM) content ranged between 82.1 to 89.4%, which were compared to 89.0 to 91.0% DM reported by Oloche et al (2021) when graded levels of cowpea husk with Gmelina arborea level basal diets are fed to West African Dwarf bucks. The lower dry matter content could be attributed to the effect of sun-drying the cassava peels and cowpea haulms, which led to the marked reduction in moisture content. It is noteworthy that there is a progressive decrease in crude protein (CP) with the inclusion level of cowpea haulms, which are within the minimum requirement (7%) for growing goats as reported by NRC (2007). Values were comparable to 5.31 to 24.6% reported by Omotoso et al (2023). It was observed that silage containing CP⁷⁵CH²⁵had better crude protein content compared to other silages. The crude fibre decreased with an increase in crude protein, as the least crude fibre was recorded in silage containing CP^100,and increased significantly with CP²⁵CH⁷⁵. The exhibited values ranged from 11.6 to 14.3% were higher than the 10.15 to 10.90% reported by Ajagbe et al (2020) for supplemented cassava peel meals. This could be attributed to the greater proportion of lignified material and the bulkiness of the cowpea haulms. There is a progressive decrease in ash content with the inclusion level of cowpea haulms; the values observed were lower than the 9.0% to 13.0% recorded by Olorunnisomo et al (2012) in a similar silage of cassava peels with legume grass. The ash content was highest (3.97%) in CP⁷⁵CH^25, possibly due to mineral contributions from cowpea haulms (Ampah 2020). Ether extract was generally low across silages, which aligns with the low-fat nature of crop residues, and was lower to 3.13 to 3.25% reported by Ajagbe et al (2020) when nitrogen was supplemented with cassava peel meals fed to West African dwarf goat. Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) ranged from 70.1%to 72.0%, inversely related to protein and fiber levels. Neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF) and acid detergent lignin values were moderate and promote proper rumen function by stimulating rumination and maintaining a healthy rumen environment. This agrees with the findings of Hajar (2025), who reported that adequate fiber intake helps to prevent digestive disorders and improve the overall digestive health of ruminants.

Table 5 shows the nutrient intake by West African Dwarf buck fed silage of cassava peel-cowpea haulms. All parameters were significantly (p<0.05) influenced across dietary treatments except the crude fibre and acid detergent lignin.

From this study, dry matter intake ranged from 502 to 508g/day were higher than 316.6 to 458.73g/day by Abatan et al (2015) when supplementing cassava peels with cassava leaves and cowpea haulms and also higher than the report of Oloche et al (2021), who reported 458.4 to 503.0g/day when graded levels of cowpea husk with Gmelina arborea level basal diets are fed to West African Dwarf bucks. This agrees with the findings by Omotoso et al (2024), who reported that increased dry matter intake can be attributed to the quality of protein, acceptability of the diets and their palatability. The crude protein intake increased with cowpea haulm inclusion, ranging from 60.4 to 70.8g/day, which was higher than the range of (35.10 to 50.29g/day) reported by Okeniyi et al (2020) when goats were fed urea-mixed milled maize stover diets. This is an indication that the silage improves the palatability of the diets and is acceptable to the bucks. The bucks fed silage containing CP⁷⁵CH²⁵had the highest crude protein intake (70.8 g/day), in agreement with the findings of Ibhaze and Fajemisin (2017), who reported that high crude protein stimulates dry matter intake and provides rumen-degradable nitrogen for micro-organisms to build their body protein. It’s noteworthy that the crude fibre increases with the inclusion level of cowpea haulms across the treatments. The crude fibre intake increases with the inclusion level of cowpea haulms across the treatments. This observation may be due to the bulkiness of the cowpea haulms. It was also observed that crude fiber intake decreased as crude protein intake increased in silage that contained CP⁷⁵CH²⁵. This observation agrees with the report of Fajemisin et al (2013). When varying levels of fresh Tithonia diversifora and P. maximum were fed to Yankasa sheep. The silage fibre fraction (NDF, ADF and ADL) encourages rumen function, although excessive NDF could hinder feed voluntary intake by ruminant animals (Nemera 2024). However, the dietary fiber fraction indicates that the silage could promote adequate function of intestinal mobility and support microbial breakdown.

As shown in Table 6 is the nutrient digestibility (%) of West African Dwarf bucks fed silage of cassava peel-cowpea haulms is presented in Table 4. All parameters showed significant differences (p<0.05) among the dietary treatments except cellulose.

In this study, the digestibility values of all the parameters measured were high, except the ADL value across the treatment (64.3 to 66.9%). This high nutrient digestibility may indicate that the protein content of the silage was adequate, which may have influenced microbial protein synthesis, facilitated fermentation and consequently improved intake and digestibility. The digestibility values for DM were between 81.7 to 83.2%, the observed DM digestibility values were higher than 55.71 to 71.43% reported by Akinbode et al (2018) for West African dwarf sheep fed sugar cane top silage, but in ranged from 78.94 to 89.52% reported by Abatan et al (2015) when supplementing cassava peels with cassava leaves and cowpea haulms, but comparable with 72.73 to 82.70% reported by Fajemisin et al. (2018) for West African dwarf goats fed Panicum maximum supplemented with Myrianthus arboreus leaf meal concentrates. However, silage containing CP⁷⁵CH²⁵had the highest dry matter digestibility across the treatments. This could be attributed to the addition of molasses into the silage, which enhanced palatability and nutrients released for absorption. The crude protein digestibility values ranged from 81.3 to 82.8% were lower than 89.48 to 90.23% reported by Oloche et al (2021) when graded levels of cowpea husk with Gmelina arborea level basal diets are fed to West African Dwarf bucks. This observation may be due to the presence of tannin and saponin, which seemed to have favoured the crude protein digestibility in the treatments by decreasing protein degradation in the rumen, so that an appreciable quantity of protein was also available post-ruminally for digestion in these silages. This is in agreement with the report of Babayemi and Bamikole (2006) who reported that the presence of tannin and saponin lowers the solubility of proteins entering the abomasum and small intestine for digestion. The crude fibre digestibility values ranged between 72.7 to 75.2%, silage containing CP⁷⁵CH²⁵had the least digestibility due to low fibre content in the silage, while silage containing CP²⁵CH⁷⁵had the highest digestibility. The observed values were higher than 66.53 to 76.78% reported by Okeniyi et al (2020) when goats were fed urea-mixed milled maize stover diets. This is in agreement with the observation of Pieper et al (2015) that higher protein intake may increase the digestibility of crude fibre of the feed. It was because of the activity of the micro-organisms and to enhance proper bowel movement (Ding et al 2024). Ether extract values were between 68.8 to 71.1% showed significantly (P<0.05) influence among the treatments; the trend was similar to those of DM and NFE digestibility. The observed values from this study were within the 68.82% to 83.06% reported by Omotoso et al. (2019) when WAD goats fed dietary levels of Cajanus cajan as a supplement to cassava peels. It’s noteworthy that NFE digestibility decreases with the inclusion level of cowpea haulms across the treatments. The observed NFE ranged between 71.9 to 75.1%; silage containing CP¹⁰⁰had the least digestibility, while silage that had CP²⁵CH⁷⁵had the highest digestibility. This observation suggested that the buck fed silage containing CP⁷⁵CH²⁵supported efficient nutrient utilization and improved palatability. The NDF digestibility values were between 77.30 to 86.56%, while the ADF values were between 70.5 to 74.9%. Mertens and Grant (2020) reported that high NDF and ADL depress intake and digestibility; however, in this study, NDF and ADF digestibility were enhanced, probably because the cowpea haulms provided some additional quantity of protein, which yielded a little more ammonia for the activities of the rumen microbes to better degrade the fibre in these silages. The high digestibility of nutrients in this study is in agreement with the report of Fajemisin et al (2018), who reported high digestibility in all nutrients when West African dwarf goats were fed Panicum maximum and supplemented with Myrianthus arboreus leaf meal concentrates. However, Ososanya and Alabi (2015) reported that graded supplementation of the diets of West African dwarf ewes with cowpea haulms produced increased nutrient digestibility with increasing inclusion level of cowpea haulms.

Table 7 presents the growth performance of the West African dwarf bucks fed the experimental diets. There was no significant (p>0.05) difference in the initial weights of the WAD bucks, but significant (p<0.05) variations were observed in the final weights of all the bucks fed the silages. The bucks fed silage containing CP⁷⁵CH²⁵show the superiority in all parameters among the treatments.

Figure 1. Relationship between Daily Weight Gain (DWG) and varying levels of cassava peel

The daily weight gain was observed to increase as the cowpea haulms inclusions in the diets increased. Therefore, the bucks fed silage containing CP⁷⁵CH²⁵had the best daily weight gain. The better growth performance of WAD goats fed the diet CP⁷⁵CH ²⁵ might be attributed to its palatability, high-quality protein content and intake, as well as high dry matter intake, nutrient availability, tolerable anti-nutrient composition, improved nitrogen utilization and increased digestibility of the diets. This is in agreement with the findings of Davis et al (2014), who reported that weight gain is dependent on dry matter intake, protein intake and the digestibility of the nutrients by the animals. Also, the highest weight gain of bucks fed silage that contained CP⁷⁵CH ²⁵ can also be due to improved nitrogen intake and retention, which might have improved the microbial population in the rumen, microbial protein available to bucks, improved energy-nitrogen ratio and improved growth of the bucks. The total weight gain of 2.43 kg and daily weight gain of 43.4 g/day in this CP⁷⁵CH²⁵ compared to other silages agreed with the findings of Omotoso et al(2019), who reported total weight gain of 2.71 to 4.76kg and daily weight gain ranging from 38.69 to 68.00 g/day in WAD goats fed molasses-treated rice husk. However, the effective utilization of these silages by the WAD bucks without any visible side effect or mortality showed that the fibre content of the silage was within the tolerable level for the experimental animals, and the ensiling to enhance the fermentation with molasses was effective in breaking the linkages between the fibre and protein in the silages as reported by Hang and Preston (2007).

Conclusion

Molasses-ensiled cassava peels and cowpea haulms at 75:25 had better silage quality and physicochemical properties and proved to be more acceptable and palatable to the animals, thus significantly improved their nutrient intake, digestibility and weight gain.

Acknowledgements

Special appreciation to the Ruminant Unit and Crop Section of Teaching and Research Farm, Nutrition Laboratory of the Department of Animal Production and Health, FUTA. Nigeria for the support received during this study.

References

Abatan O, Oni A O, Adebayo K, Iposu S, Sowande O S and Onwuka and C F I 2015 Effects of supplementing cassava peels with cassava leaves and cowpea haulms on the performance, intake, digestibility and nitrogen utilization of West African Dwarf goats. Tropical animal health and production, 47(1), 123-129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-014-0695-1.

Abebe B K and Alemayehu M T 2022 A review of the nutritional use of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) for human and animal diets. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 10, 100383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2022.100383.

Adebowale E A and Taiwo A A 1996 Utilization of crop residues and agro-industrial by-products as complete diets for West African dwarf sheep and goats.

Ajagbe A D, Oyewole B O Abdulmumin, A A and Aduku O P 2020 Nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance of growing West African Dwarf (WAD) goat fed nitrogen supplemented cassava peel meals. IOSR J. Agric. Vet. Sci , 13, 42-47. DOI: 10.9790/2380-1305014247

Ahamefule F O, Ibeawuchi J A and Ibe S N 2006 Nutrient intake and utilization of pigeon pea-cassava peel-based diets by West African Dwarf (WAD) bucks. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 5(5), 419-424.

Akinbode R M, Isah O A, Oni A O, Adebayo K O, Aderinboye R Y, Adelusi O O and Ojo V O A 2018 Nutrient digestibility and blood parameters of West African dwarf sheep fed sugarcane top silage. Nigerian Journal of Animal Production, 45(2), 304-315. https://doi.org/10.51791/NJAP.V45I2.527

Ampah J K 2020 Assessment of nutritional level, functional properties and mineral contents of newly developed genotypes of cowpea Vigna Unguiculata (L.) Walp. in Ghana (Doctoral dissertation, University of Cape Coast).

AOAC 2022 Official methods of analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (20th ed.). AOAC International Rockville, MD.

Aro S O, Aletor V A and Oladunmoye M K 2017 Feeding microbe-fermented cassava tuber wastes modulates gut microbiota and faecal characteristics of growing pigs. Fermentation Technology, 6(2), 2-9. DOI: 10.4172/2167-7972.1000145.

Ayuba A 2023 Nutritional Evaluation Of Crop Residues Using Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (Doctoral Dissertation).

Babayemi O J and Igbekoyi A J 2008 Ensiling pasture grass with pod of browse plant is potential to solving dry season feed for ruminants in rural settlements of Nigeria. Parameters, 10(20), 30.

Baloyi J J, Ngongoni N T and Hamudikuwanda H 2008 The effect feeding forage legumes as nitrogen supplement on growth performance of sheep. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 40(6), 457-462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-007-9120-3.

Davis M P, Freetly H C, Kuehn L A and Wells J E 2014 Influence of dry matter intake, dry matter digestibility and feeding behavior on body weight gain of beef steers. Journal of Animal Science, 92(7), 3018-3025. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2013-6518

Ding F, Hu M, Ding Y, Meng Y and Zhao Y 2024 Efficacy in bowel movement and change of gut microbiota on adult functional constipation patients treated with probiotics-containing products: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ open, 14(1), e074557. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2023-074557

Fajemisin A N, Salihu T, Fadiyimu A, Alokan A and Agbede O 2013 Dietary effect of substituting Panicum maximum with Tithonia diversifolia forage on performance of Yankasa sheep. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/igc/22/1-8/10

Fajemisin A N, Ibhaze G A and Adeyeye A A 2018 Performance of West African dwarf goats fed Panicum maximum supplemented with Myrianthus arboreus leaf meal concentrates. Nigeria journal of Animal Production. 45(2): 298-303. https://doi.org/10.51791/njap.v45i2.506

Gwiriri L C, Machekano H, Cooke A S, Nyamukondiwa C, Safalaoh A, Ventura-Cordero J and Takahashi T 2023 Ecological interventions to enhance goat health and livelihood outcomes in rural sub-Saharan African communities. Available at SSRN 4581363. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4581363

Gross D and Tolba R H 2015 Ethics in animal-based research. European Surgical Research,55(1-2), 43-57.

Hajar H 2025 Nutritional transformation of ruminant feed: A literature review on the role of fermentation in enhancing productivity. Journal of Agriculture, Agribusiness, Welfare, Technology, Humanity, Environment, Social and Economy, 1(1), 50-58. DOI: https://doi.org/10.64690/agrones.v1i1.274

Hang D T and Preston T R. 2007 Taro leaves as a protein source for growing pigs in central vietnan. In Proceeding of the ME-KARN International Conference on Matching Livestock Systems with Available Resources.

Ibhaze G A and Fajemisin A N 2017 Blood metabolites of intensively reared gravid West African Dwarf goats fed pulverized biofibre wastes-based diets. Anim Res Int 14 (1):2598-2603.

Katongole C B and Yan T 2020 Effect of varying dietary crude protein level on feed intake, nutrient digestibility, milk production and nitrogen use efficiency by lactating Holstein-Friesian cows. Animals, 10(12), 2439. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10122439

Kung L and Shaver R 2001 Interpretation and use of silage fermentation analysis reports. Focus on forage, 3(13), 1-5.

Liu B, Yang Z, Huan H, Gu H, Xu N and Ding C 2020 Impact of molasses and microbial inoculants on fermentation quality, aerobic stability, and bacterial and fungal microbiomes of barley silage. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 5342. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-62290-7

Mertens D R and Grant R J 2020 Digestibility and intake. Forages: the science of grassland agriculture, 2, 609-631.

Mugoti A Nyamukanza C, Munengwa A Moyo S and Chikumba N 2025 Effects of climate change on goat production and mitigatory measures in semiarid savanna ecosystems. Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences, 22(1), 2513899. https://doi.org/10.1080/1943815X.2025.2513899

National Research Council NRC 2007 Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants: Sheep, Goats, Cervids and New World Camelids. The National Academies Press.

Nemera D W 2024 Effect of intercropping oats with alfalfa on dry matter yield, nutritive value, in vitro ruminal fermentation kinetics and silage quality. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/159822

Niayale R, Addah W and Ayantunde, A A 2020 Effects of ensiling cassava peels on some fermentation characteristics and growth performance of sheep on-farm. https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/gjas.v55i2.9

Okeniyi F A, Olawoye S O, Animashahun, R A, Alabi O O, Shoyombo A J, Falana M B and Sowande O S 2020 Mineral balance, nutrient intake and digestibility of West African dwarf (Wad) goats fed urea-mixed milled maize stover diets. ADAN Journal of Agriculture, 1(1), 149-159. DOI: https://doi.org/10.36108/adanja/0202.10.0171

Okike I, Wigboldus S, Samireddipalle A, Naziri D, Adesehinwa A O, Adejoh V A and Kulakow, P 2022 Turning waste to wealth: harnessing the potential of cassava peels for nutritious animal feed. In Root, Tuber and Banana Food System Innovations: Value Creation for Inclusive Outcomes (pp. 173-206). Cham: Springer International Publishing.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92022-7_6

Olafadehan O A and Adebayo O F 2016 Nutritional evaluation of ammoniated ensiled threshed sorghum top as a feed for goats. Tropical animal health and production, 48(4), 785-791. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-016-1027-4

Oloche J, Dido P L and Ayoade J A 2021 Growth response, nutrient digestibility and cost analysis of West African Dwarf bucks fed diets containing graded levels of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) husk with gmelina (Gmelina arborea) leaves as basal diet. Fudma Journal of Sciences, 5(3), 48-53. https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2021-0503-741

Olorunnisomo O A and Fayomi O H (2012) Quality and preference of zebu heifers for legume or elephant grass-silages with cassava peel. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 24(9), 24-38.

Omotoso O B and Arilekolasi T A 2019 Nutrient utilization and nitrogen metabolism by West African dwarf goat-bucks fed molasses-treated biodegraded rice husk. Nigerian Journal of Animal Science, 21(3), 205-218.https://www.ajol.info/index.php/tjas/article/view/194381

Omotoso O B, Arilekolasi T A and Fajemisin A N 2019 Study on mineral, antinutrient and blood parameters of goats fed molasses-treated rice husk. Journal of Food, Nutrition and Agriculture, 2(1), 10-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.21839/jfna.2 019.v2i1.236

Omotoso O B, Rafiu M O and Oso T S 2023 Crude protein intake and growth performance of West African Dwarf (WAD) goats fed cassava peel substituted with cowpea haulms. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 35, 8. https://www.lrrd.org/lrrd35/8/3570rafi.html

Omotoso O B, Adeniran C O, Fajemisin A N and Alokan J A 2024 Performance, digestibility and rumen fermentation characteristics of goats fed leaf meals of Vernonia amygdalina or Moringa oleifera. Acta Scientiarum. Animal Sciences , 46, e68714.https://doi.org/10.4025/actascianimsci.v46i1.68714

Ososanya T O and Alabi B O 2015 Utilization of graded levels of corn cobs and cowpea husk on growth performance of West African dwarf ewes.

Oyagbohun, A V 2025 The effect of temperature and period of storage on the nutritional composition of cassava. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews , 25(1), 1258-1274.https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.25.1.0153.

Pieper R, Vahjen W and Zentek J 2015 Dietary fibre and crude protein: impact on gastrointestinal microbial fermentation characteristics and host response. Animal production science, 55(12), 1367-1375. https://doi.org/10.1071/AN15278

Taran T 2019 Nutritious feed for farm animals during lean period: silage and hay-a review.

Tona G O 2022 Genetic and adaptive traits of the West African Dwarf goat: A review for sustainable utilization. Tropical Animal Health and Production 54(6): 365.

Unigwe C R, Mhomga L I, Igwe I R and Egwu L U 2023 Cassava peels as feed resource for animal production-A review. World Scientific News, 183, 104-120.