tropical dryland conditions (mean ± SEM). Different superscripts indicate significant differences among treatments (p< 0.05).
| Livestock Research for Rural Development 38 (2) 2026 | LRRD Search | LRRD Misssion | Guide for preparation of papers | LRRD Newsletter | Citation of this paper |
Livestock production in tropical drylands faces persistent constraints driven by seasonal feed shortages and limited water availability, which undermine productivity and resilience in smallholder systems. This study evaluated the integration of cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) with locally available agro-industrial by-products as a strategy to enhance feed efficiency and adaptive capacity of goats in Sumbawa, Indonesia. A completely randomized design was applied using 24 Kacang goats assigned to four dietary treatments: conventional forage, cactus alone, cactus with rice bran and cactus with coconut cake. Key performance indicators included dry matter intake, average daily gain, feed conversion ratio, water intake and feeding stability. The results demonstrated significant improvements (p< 0.05) in intake and growth performance in all cactus-based diets, with the highest response observed in the cactus–coconut cake combination. Feed efficiency improved markedly, indicating enhanced nutrient utilization under supplemented conditions. In addition, cactus inclusion substantially reduced drinking water requirements without compromising growth, highlighting its functional role as both a feed and hydration source. Feeding patterns were also more stable in cactus-fed groups, suggesting improved physiological adaptation to environmental stress. These findings confirm that integrating cactus with protein-rich local supplements represents a viable, climate-adaptive feeding strategy that strengthens productivity, resource-use efficiency and resilience in dryland smallholder livestock systems.
Keywords: dryland resilience, smallholder goats, agro-industrial by-products, feed
Livestock production systems in tropical drylands are increasingly constrained by the combined pressures of climate variability, prolonged drought and declining forage availability. These constraints disproportionately affect smallholder farmers, whose production systems rely heavily on natural pastures and seasonal feed resources. In such environments, feed scarcity is not only a nutritional issue but also a structural limitation that reduces productivity, increases vulnerability and undermines system resilience (FAO, 2023). Recent studies highlight that climate-induced feed deficits are becoming more frequent and severe, necessitating adaptive feeding strategies that are both locally feasible and ecologically sustainable (Louhaichi et al 2025).
One promising approach involves the utilization of drought-resilient plant species such as cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica), which has gained increasing attention as a strategic feed resource in arid and semi-arid regions. Cactus is characterized by high water-use efficiency, rapid biomass production under low rainfall and the ability to thrive on marginal lands. Empirical evidence indicates that cactus-based diets can significantly reduce water intake requirements in ruminants while maintaining physiological performance, thereby offering a dual function as both feed and water source (de Lima Cruz et al 2023; Moreno et al 2024). This attribute is particularly relevant in dryland production systems where water scarcity is a primary constraint.
Beyond water efficiency, recent experimental findings demonstrate that cactus inclusion in ruminant diets can improve ruminal fermentation patterns, increase propionate production and reduce methane emissions, suggesting its potential contribution to environmentally sustainable livestock systems (da Silva et al 2025). These functional properties position cactus not only as an emergency feed resource but as a component of climate-smart livestock strategies aligned with global sustainability goals.
However, despite its advantages, cactus alone does not provide a nutritionally balanced diet due to its relatively low crude protein content. This limitation necessitates the integration of complementary feed resources, particularly those rich in protein, to optimize animal performance. Agro-industrial by-products such as rice bran, coconut cake and oilseed residues represent viable supplements due to their availability, affordability and nutritional profile. Recent feeding trials have shown that combining cactus with protein-rich supplements significantly improves feed intake, digestibility and growth performance in goats (Berhe et al 2024).
Furthermore, integrating cactus with other locally available forages or tree legumes has been shown to enhance nutrient intake and feed efficiency without negatively affecting production outputs such as milk yield or carcass quality (Araújo et al 2023; Nefzaoui & Ben Salem, 2023). These findings reinforce the importance of designing integrated feeding systems rather than relying on single feed resources, especially in resource-limited smallholder contexts. Another critical dimension is the role of cactus-based systems in stabilizing feeding patterns under environmental stress. Studies indicate that cactus consumption contributes to more consistent intake behavior and improved physiological adaptation during periods of water restriction, thereby enhancing the resilience of livestock systems (Neiva et al 2023; Preston & Leng, 2023). This stability is essential for smallholder farmers who face fluctuating feed availability and limited capacity to buffer environmental shocks.
At the system level, the adoption of cactus as a feed resource has been associated with improved farm-level productivity and economic outcomes, particularly when integrated into diversified production systems. Multi-country analyses show that farmers adopting cactus-based feeding strategies achieve higher biomass production and better resource-use efficiency, highlighting its potential as a scalable solution for dryland agriculture (Louhaichi et al 2025). Importantly, such systems align with the principles of circular agriculture by utilizing locally available resources and reducing dependence on external inputs.
Despite the growing body of evidence, there remains a critical research gap regarding the integration of cactus with locally specific agro-industrial by-products under smallholder conditions, particularly in Southeast Asian dryland systems. Most existing studies have been conducted in Africa or Latin America, limiting the contextual applicability of their findings. Moreover, there is still insufficient empirical data linking cactus-based feeding strategies with both productivity and resilience indicators within a single experimental framework.
Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the integration of cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) with locally available agro-industrial by-products as a strategy to enhance feed efficiency and adaptive capacity of goats in tropical dryland systems. By addressing both nutritional performance and system resilience, this research contributes to the development of sustainable, locally grounded feeding strategies that are consistent with the principles of smallholder-oriented livestock development.
The study was conducted in a smallholder farming area in Sumbawa, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, a region characterized by a tropical dryland climate. The area experiences a unimodal rainfall pattern with an annual precipitation ranging between 600 and 900 mm, concentrated within a short rainy season (December–March), followed by an extended dry period. During the dry season, natural pasture availability declines sharply, leading to seasonal feed deficits. Farming systems in the study area are predominantly mixed crop–livestock systems, where goats play an important role as a source of income and household resilience. The selection of this location was based on its representativeness of dryland livestock production systems in eastern Indonesia.
A total of 24 local male goats (Kacang breed), aged approximately 6–8 months with an average initial body weight of 15.2 ± 1.8 kg, were used in this study. The animals were sourced from local farmers and underwent a health screening prior to the experiment to ensure uniform physiological condition. The goats were housed individually in semi-open pens constructed using locally available materials to simulate typical smallholder management conditions while allowing controlled feeding and measurement. Animals were adapted to the experimental diets and housing conditions for 14 days prior to data collection. Routine health management, including deworming and vaccination, was conducted following standard local veterinary practices.
The study employed a completely randomized design (CRD) with four dietary treatments and six replications per treatment. The treatments were formulated to reflect practical feeding strategies based on locally available resources:
Cactus cladodes were harvested locally, de-spined manually and chopped into small pieces before feeding. Rice bran and coconut cake were obtained from nearby agro-processing units, ensuring relevance to smallholder accessibility. Feed was offered twice daily (08:00 and 16:00) at approximately 10% above the expected intake to allow for ad libitum consumption. Clean drinking water was provided freely, although intake was monitored throughout the study.
The chemical composition of all dietary components was determined using standard proximate analysis procedures (AOAC, 2016). Samples of forage, cactus cladodes, rice bran and coconut cake were analyzed (Table 1) for dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), crude fiber (CF), ether extract (EE) and ash content.
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Table 1. Chemical composition of feed ingredients (% DM basis)style="border-bottom: 1.0pt solid" |
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|
Component |
DM (%) |
CP (%) |
CF (%) |
EE (%) |
Ash (%) |
||
|
Native grass (P. purpureum + C. dactylon) |
88.5 |
8.5 |
28.0 |
2.1 |
9.0 |
||
|
Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) |
12.0 |
5.0 |
10.5 |
1.2 |
20.0 |
||
|
Rice bran |
89.0 |
13.5 |
11.0 |
10.0 |
8.5 |
||
|
Coconut cake |
90.5 |
20.5 |
13.0 |
8.0 |
7.5 |
||
Daily feed intake was determined by measuring the difference between feed offered and refusals over a 24-hour period. Samples of each feed component were collected weekly and analyzed for dry matter content using standard proximate procedures. Dry matter intake (DMI) was expressed as grams per day and as a percentage of body weight.
Animals were weighed at the beginning of the trial and subsequently at weekly intervals using a digital livestock scale. Average daily gain (ADG) was calculated as the difference between final and initial body weight divided by the number of experimental days. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) was computed as the ratio of dry matter intake to body weight gain, providing an indicator of feed efficiency.
Water intake was recorded daily by measuring the volume of water offered and the remaining amount after 24 hours. Water use efficiency was evaluated by relating water intake to weight gain, with particular attention to the contribution of cactus moisture content in reducing drinking water requirements.
To assess feeding consistency, daily intake data were used to calculate the coefficient of variation (CV) for each animal over the experimental period. Lower CV values were interpreted as greater feeding stability, which is considered an important indicator of resilience under fluctuating environmental conditions.
All data were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using a completely randomized design. When significant differences among treatments were detected (P < 0.05), mean comparisons were performed using Duncan’s multiple range test. Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS version 25. Standard error of the mean (SEM) was calculated and used to represent variability in both tabular and graphical data.
Feed intake and growth performance are primary indicators used to evaluate the effectiveness of dietary interventions in small ruminant production systems, particularly under resource-constrained dryland conditions. In this study, the integration of cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) with locally available agro-industrial by-products was expected to improve nutrient intake, optimize rumen function and ultimately enhance animal productivity. The results of these parameters are presented in Table 2.
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Table 2. Growth performance and feed utilization |
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|
Parameter |
C |
Of |
Of+rb |
Of+cc |
SEM |
p- value |
||
|
DMI (g/day) |
520 ± 25ᵃ |
610 ± 30ᵇ |
645 ± 28ᶜ |
680 ± 32ᵈ |
9.8 |
<0.001 |
||
|
ADG (g/day) |
65 ± 5ᵃ |
78 ± 6ᵇ |
88 ± 7ᶜ |
102 ± 8ᵈ |
2.1 |
<0.001 |
||
|
FCR |
8.0ᵃ |
7.8ᵃᵇ |
7.3ᵇ |
6.7ᶜ |
0.18 |
0.002 |
||
|
Note: Values are expressed as mean ± SD. Different superscripts within the same row indicate significant differences (p< 0.05) |
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|
|
| |
| Figure 1. Effect of dietary treatments on
dry matter intake (DMI), average daily gain (ADG) and feed
conversion ratio (FCR) of goats under tropical dryland conditions (mean ± SEM). Different superscripts indicate significant differences among treatments (p< 0.05). | |
As shown in Table 2 and Figure 1, dietary treatments had a highly significant effect on all measured parameters, including dry matter intake (DMI), average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR). Goats receiving cactus-based diets (Of, Of+rb and Of+cc) exhibited consistently higher feed intake compared to the control group, with the highest DMI recorded in Of+cc (680 g/day). The progressive increase in DMI across treatments suggests that cactus inclusion improved palatability and intake capacity, particularly when combined with nutrient-dense supplements such as coconut cake. A similar trend was observed in growth performance. Average daily gain increased significantly (P < 0.001) from 65 g/day in the control group to 102 g/day in Of+cc, representing an improvement of more than 50%. This substantial increase indicates that the integration of cactus with protein-rich supplements effectively enhanced nutrient availability and utilization, supporting better animal growth. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) also improved significantly (P = 0.002), with lower values observed in supplemented treatments. The lowest FCR (6.7) in Of+cc indicates superior feed efficiency, meaning that animals required less feed to produce one unit of body weight gain.
The statistical grouping (superscripts) further confirms that Of+cc performed significantly better than the other treatments. The inclusion of cactus significantly increased dry matter intake (DMI) and average daily gain (ADG), with the highest performance observed in Of+cc (cactus + coconut cake). This pattern indicates that cactus improves palatability and intake stimulation, particularly when combined with protein-rich supplements. These findings are consistent with recent evidence showing that supplementation strategies in dryland systems improve digestibility and intake efficiency when energy and protein sources are balanced (Oliveira et al 2026). Similarly, cactus-based diets have been associated with increased fresh matter intake due to high moisture content and rapid ruminal degradation (Ferreira et al 2024). The improved feed conversion ratio (FCR) in Of+rb and Of+cc suggests enhanced nutrient utilization efficiency. The improved performance observed in supplemented treatments can be directly attributed to the higher crude protein content of coconut cake (20.5%) and rice bran (13.5%), which effectively compensated for the relatively low protein content of cactus (5.0%). This complementary nutrient interaction likely enhanced rumen microbial activity by providing a more balanced supply of fermentable energy and nitrogen, thereby optimizing microbial protein synthesis and nutrient digestibility. As a result, animals were able to utilize dietary nutrients more efficiently, leading to improved growth performance and feed conversion efficiency. This finding reinforces the importance of dietary synchronization between energy and protein sources in ruminant feeding systems, particularly under dryland conditions where basal feeds are often nutritionally imbalanced.
This is supported by studies indicating that rumen microbial adaptation improves feed efficiency when diets include readily fermentable carbohydrates combined with adequate nitrogen supply (Belanche et al 2025). The relatively low SEM values across all parameters indicate limited variability among replicates, suggesting that the experimental conditions were well controlled and the responses were consistent. This strengthens the reliability of the observed treatment effects. Overall, the results clearly demonstrate that cactus-based feeding strategies, particularly when combined with coconut cake, can substantially improve both feed intake and growth efficiency in goats under dryland conditions.
Water intake is a critical parameter in evaluating the adaptive capacity of livestock under dryland conditions, where water scarcity often limits production more severely than feed availability. In this context, the inclusion of cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica), known for its high moisture content, is expected to reduce dependence on drinking water while maintaining physiological performance. The effect of dietary treatments on water intake is illustrated in Figure 2.
 |
| Figure 2. Effect of cactus-based diets
on water intake (L/day) of goats under tropical dryland conditions (values are mean ± SEM) |
As presented in Figure 2, water intake decreased progressively with the inclusion of cactus in the diet. Goats in the control treatment (C) exhibited the highest water consumption, while those receiving cactus-based diets showed a marked reduction, with the lowest intake observed in Of+cc (cactus + coconut cake). This trend indicates that the moisture provided by cactus cladodes significantly contributed to the animals’ hydration needs. The sharp decline in water intake between C and Of suggests that even partial substitution of conventional forage with cactus can substantially reduce drinking water requirements. The continued reduction in Of+rb and Of+cc further highlights the additive effect of combining cactus with concentrate supplements, which may improve nutrient utilization and metabolic water efficiency.
Goats fed cactus-based diets exhibited a substantial reduction in drinking water intake, with Of+cc showing the lowest consumption. This result strongly aligns with experimental findings demonstrating that cactus inclusion at moderate levels can act as a primary water source without negatively affecting animal performance. Furthermore, cactus-based feeding systems have been shown to significantly reduce the overall water footprint of livestock production systems (García et al 2025). From a systems perspective, this reduction in water dependency represents a critical adaptive advantage in dryland environments, where water availability is often the most limiting factor. The integration of cactus therefore contributes not only to nutritional adequacy but also to hydrological resilience.
The relatively small error bars (±SEM) across treatments indicate low variability in water intake among animals, reinforcing the consistency of the observed response. Importantly, despite the reduced water intake, no decline in growth performance was observed (Table 2), suggesting that cactus effectively functions as both a feed and a water source. From an adaptive perspective, these findings demonstrate that cactus-based feeding systems can enhance resilience to water scarcity by reducing reliance on external water sources. This has significant implications for smallholder livestock systems in tropical drylands, where water access is often limited and highly variable.
The superior performance observed in Of+cc suggests a synergistic interaction between cactus and coconut cake. While cactus provides rapidly fermentable carbohydrates, coconut cake supplies essential protein, supporting microbial protein synthesis in the rumen. Recent studies confirm that balanced diets combining fermentable energy and protein enhance rumen fermentation efficiency, increase propionate production and improve overall animal productivity (Abdelsattar, 2025). Additionally, cactus-based diets have been associated with improved ruminal degradability compared to conventional forages, contributing to higher nutrient availability (Méndez et al 2024). Another important aspect is the potential reduction in enteric methane emissions. Evidence suggests that cactus feeding can shift rumen fermentation toward propionate pathways, thereby reducing methane production and improving energy retention (Silva et al 2025). This implies that cactus integration not only improves productivity but also contributes to environmental sustainability.
Cactus-based diets resulted in more stable feeding patterns, as indicated by lower variability in daily intake. This stability is a critical but often overlooked indicator of resilience in smallholder systems. In dryland environments, fluctuations in feed availability often lead to irregular intake patterns, negatively affecting animal performance. The consistency observed in cactus-fed goats suggests that cactus acts as a buffering feed resource, ensuring more predictable nutrient supply. Recent research emphasizes that dietary consistency plays a key role in maintaining rumen health and preventing metabolic stress, particularly under challenging environmental conditions (Rodriguez et al 2024). Moreover, stable intake patterns are associated with improved microbial efficiency and reduced physiological stress.
The results of this study highlight the strategic role of cactus integration in enhancing the sustainability of smallholder livestock systems. By combining cactus with locally available agro-industrial by-products, farmers can: a) Increase productivity (higher ADG), b) Improve feed efficiency (lower FCR), c) Reduce water dependency and d) Enhance system stability. These findings align with broader evidence that locally adapted feeding strategies are essential for improving resilience in tropical livestock systems (Kebede et al 2025). In addition, integrating unconventional feed resources has been shown to reduce reliance on external inputs and improve economic viability at the farm level. Importantly, the use of coconut cake in this study demonstrates the value of circular agriculture, where agro-industrial by-products are reintegrated into livestock systems. This approach contributes to resource efficiency and supports sustainable rural development.
Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) combined with local by-products significantly improved feed intake, growth performance and feed efficiency in goats. The best results were observed in the cactus + coconut cake treatment, which also reduced water intake without affecting productivity. These findings demonstrate that cactus-based feeding systems are an effective strategy to enhance efficiency and resilience of smallholder livestock under dryland conditions.
The authors thank the local smallholder farmers for their cooperation, the technical staff at the Sumbawa University of Technology and Animal Nutrition Laboratory. Constructive suggestions from anonymous reviewers are greatly appreciated.
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