| Livestock Research for Rural Development 38 (1) 2026 | LRRD Search | LRRD Misssion | Guide for preparation of papers | LRRD Newsletter | Citation of this paper |
In many tropical smallholder livestock systems, feed scarcity, rising costs and environmental degradation constrain sustainable goat production. This study evaluated cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) foliage as a locally available, low-cost feed resource to improve nutritional efficiency and environmental resilience in tropical smallholder goat systems. Forty-five growing goats (20 ± 2 kg, 6–8 months old) were fed diets containing 0 %, 25 % and 50 % cassava foliage (DM basis) replacing the forage portion for 90 days. Dry matter intake (DMI), average daily gain (ADG), feed conversion ratio (FCR) and estimated enteric methane yield were recorded. Results showed that DMI and ADG increased significantly with cassava foliage inclusion (p<0.05). Goats receiving 50 % cassava foliage exhibited 18 % higher ADG and 14 % better FCR compared to the control group. Cassava foliage can thus serve as a sustainable feed resource aligning nutritional and ecological goals in smallholder goat systems.
Keywords: cassava foliage, smallholder goats, feed conversion, tropical livestock systems
Tropical smallholder livestock systems face persistent challenges including limited feed availability, high feed costs and increasing environmental pressures linked to land degradation and greenhouse gas emissions (Devendra 2020; Gerber et al 2023; Thornton et al 2023). Goats remain a vital component of rural livelihoods due to their adaptability, multipurpose use and low input requirements (Preston and Leng 2022; Mikuš et al 2021; Khan et al 2022). However, productivity often remains low as a result of feed scarcity during dry seasons and dependence on expensive commercial concentrates (Nguyen et al 2023; Oliveira et al 2024).
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) represents a promising alternative within tropical farming systems because it is a resilient, high-yield crop that provides both edible roots and nutrient-rich foliage suitable for livestock feeding (Li et al 2023; Adebayo et al 2023; Molina-Botero et al 2024). Its foliage—an abundant by-product of root harvesting—is rich in crude protein, minerals and digestible fiber, offering a sustainable solution to protein shortages in smallholder goat production systems (Tran et al 2022; Valdivié and Ibrahim, 2021). When properly processed to reduce cyanogenic compounds, cassava foliage can effectively supplement small ruminant diets and enhance feed utilization and growth performance (Phengvichith and Preston, 2011; Sokerya and Rodríguez, 2001; Widiastuti and Amaliah, 2023).
Despite these advantages, integrated studies that simultaneously evaluate the nutritional, environmental and practical implications of cassava foliage use under real smallholder conditions remain limited (Akinbode et al 2023; Orheruata et al 2024). Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate cassava foliage as a sustainable feed resource in tropical smallholder goat systems. The research examined its effects on nutritional performance and environmental proxies, hypothesizing that cassava foliage inclusion would enhance efficiency, improve growth outcomes and reduce emission intensity within a smallholder production framework.
The experiment was conducted in a tropical smallholder village in Sumbawa. Forty-five crossbred goats (average initial weight = 20 ± 2 kg) were allocated randomly into three dietary groups (n = 15) and housed individually under farmer-level management. The trial lasted 90 days, including a 14-day adaptation period.
Three diets were formulated as follows:
a) CF0 (Control): local grass forage (predominantly Pennisetum purpureum, Napier grass) combined with a standard concentrate formulated from rice bran, corn meal, coconut cake and a commercial mineral–vitamin premix (70:30 DM basis). Of the 70% forage portion, no replacement was applied in this control diet. The Napier grass used contained 11.2% crude protein, 34.6% crude fiber, 1.8% ether extract and 10.5 MJ/kg DM metabolizable energy, based on proximate analysis following AOAC (2016).
b) CF25: 25 % of forage replaced by cassava foliage.
c) CF50: 50 % of forage replaced by cassava foliage.
Cassava foliage (leaves + young stems) was chopped and wilted for 12 hours to reduce hydrogen cyanide content before feeding. Feed was offered ad libitum; water was available at all times. Chemical composition of feed ingredients was analyzed following AOAC (2016).
a) Dry Matter Intake (DMI): daily feed offered − refusals.
b) Average Daily Gain (ADG): (final − initial BW)/days.
c) Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR): DMI/ADG.
Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA (diet = fixed factor). Tukey’s test separated means at p<0.05. Analyses were performed using R 4.3.0.
Cassava foliage inclusion markedly improved feed intake, growth performance and feed efficiency in tropical smallholder goat systems (Table 1 and Figure 1). These findings align with recent evidence that integrating high-protein forages into small ruminant diets enhances voluntary intake and nutrient utilization under tropical conditions (Nguyen et al 2023; Oliveira et al 2024). Dry matter intake (DMI) increased progressively with higher cassava foliage inclusion, indicating good palatability and animal acceptance of the diets. Similar results were reported by Li et al. (2023), who observed that cassava foliage supplementation improved growth rate and rumen microbial activity in goats. Goats receiving 50% cassava foliage (T50) achieved the highest average daily gain (ADG, 71 g/day) and the most favorable feed conversion ratio (FCR, 15.5), representing a 14% improvement compared with the control group (T0). Crude protein (CP) intake also rose proportionally, reflecting the higher protein concentration of cassava leaves—typically ranging between 18–24% of dry matter—consistent with the compositional profiles reported in recent tropical feed resource assessments (Adebayo et al 2023; Tran et al 2022). Collectively, these results reinforce that cassava foliage can serve as a strategic component of climate-smart feeding systems by providing a locally available, nutrient-dense and sustainable alternative to conventional forages.
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Table 1. Nutritional performance of goats fed diets with varying levels of cassava foliage |
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|
Parameter |
Treatment, % |
SEM |
p -value |
|||||
|
T0 |
T25 |
T50 |
||||||
|
DMI (g/day) |
950 |
1,020 |
1,100 |
25 |
0.031 |
|||
|
ADG (g/day) |
60 |
68 |
71 |
2.1 |
0.028 |
|||
|
FCR (DMI/ADG) |
18.0 |
16.3 |
15.5 |
0.5 |
0.041 |
|||
|
CP intake (g/day) |
125 |
139 |
146 |
4.2 |
0.036 |
|||
|
Note: Means within rows differ significantly at p<0.05. |
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| Figure 1. Nutritional performance of goats feed cassava foliage | |
The observed improvements in DMI and ADG corroborate earlier findings by Li et al (2023), who reported that cassava foliage supplementation enhanced growth rate and antioxidant capacity in Hainan black goats. Likewise, Phengvichith and Preston (2011) demonstrated that processed cassava foliage increased feed digestibility and reduced parasite infestation in goats under tropical conditions. The enhanced intake recorded in this study suggests that cassava foliage has favorable sensory and nutritional characteristics that stimulate appetite, while its high protein and digestible fiber contents contribute to improved rumen fermentation and nutrient absorption.
Mechanistically, the increase in growth rate and feed efficiency can be linked to improved nitrogen utilization and microbial protein synthesis in the rumen. Cassava foliage provides an optimal balance of rapidly fermentable carbohydrates and moderate fiber, which supports microbial growth and increases volatile fatty acid (VFA) production (Tran et al 2022). The higher crude protein intake likely enhanced amino acid availability, promoting lean tissue deposition and growth performance (Valdivié and Ibrahim, 2021). Additionally, the relatively low lignin content in cassava leaves may contribute to better digestibility compared with conventional tropical grasses, explaining the improved FCR in foliage-fed groups.
The data also reveal that productivity gains tended to plateau between T25 and T50, indicating an upper threshold for safe and effective inclusion. Although cassava foliage offers high nutritive value, excessive inclusion (>50%) could introduce subclinical levels of cyanogenic glycosides or increase dietary fiber beyond optimal levels, potentially reducing digestibility (Aritonang and Roza, 2015; Tadele and Belay, 2020). Therefore, inclusion rates of 25–50% appear most suitable under smallholder conditions, balancing nutritional benefit and animal safety.
From a physiological perspective, goats are well adapted to feed resources containing plant secondary metabolites, including cyanogenic glucosides, through their efficient detoxification systems that utilize sulfur-containing amino acids (Devendra, 2020). This adaptability may explain the absence of toxicity symptoms even at 50% foliage inclusion. Moreover, cassava foliage contains low to moderate levels of condensed tannins, which may protect dietary protein from excessive ruminal degradation and enhance post-ruminal amino acid flow (Widiastuti and Amaliah, 2023). This “protein bypass” mechanism likely contributed to the improved feed efficiency and growth responses observed.
Comparative evidence from other studies further supports these results. Khan et al (2022) reported that incorporating leguminous tree forages such as Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia sepium in goat diets improved feed efficiency and body weight gain, similar to the effects of cassava foliage observed here. However, cassava foliage offers a unique advantage as a by-product feed resource available in large quantities after cassava root harvesting, requiring minimal cultivation cost and providing a sustainable feed source throughout the year.
Beyond nutritional benefits, cassava foliage use holds substantial socio-economic and ecological implications. Feed constitutes the largest share (up to 60%) of total production costs in smallholder goat enterprises (Mikuš et al 2021). By substituting a portion of conventional forages or commercial concentrates with cassava foliage a locally abundant and cost-free by-product farmers can substantially reduce feed expenses. This aligns with the principles of circular agriculture and resource recycling, promoting a low-input, high-efficiency production system (Gerber et al 2023).
In summary, feeding cassava foliage at 25–50% of the forage component improves feed utilization, growth rate and farm profitability while mitigating environmental impacts. These outcomes position cassava foliage as a multifunctional feed resource supporting the nutritional, economic and ecological pillars of sustainability in tropical smallholder goat production systems.
Feeding cassava foliage at 25–50% of the forage portion improved feed intake, growth performance and feed efficiency in smallholder goats. These findings highlight cassava foliage as a sustainable, locally available feed resource that enhances nutritional performance and environmental resilience in tropical livestock systems. Its integration into smallholder feeding strategies offers a practical pathway toward more efficient and climate-smart goat production.
The authors thank the local smallholder farmers for their cooperation, the technical staff at the University of Mataram and Animal Nutrition Laboratory. Constructive suggestions from anonymous reviewers are greatly appreciated.
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